1. Detection and quantitation of 2,5-diketopiperazines in wheat sourdough and bread
Liam A M Ryan, Fabio Dal Bello, Elke K Arendt, Peter Koehler J Agric Food Chem. 2009 Oct 28;57(20):9563-8. doi: 10.1021/jf902033v.
Liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (LC-MS) was used to quantify the levels of the 2,5-diketopiperazines cis-cyclo(L-Leu-L-Pro) and cis-cyclo(L-Phe-L-Pro) in acidified dough and bread. Dough acidification led to a significant increase in the level of cis-cyclo(L-Leu-L-Pro) and cis-cyclo(L-Phe-L-Pro) over 48 h compared to a nonacidified dough. However, no differences were found between chemically (mix of lactic and acetic acid in the presence of antibiotics) and biologically acidified doughs. On examination of the levels of cis-cyclo(L-Leu-L-Pro) and cis-cyclo(L-Phe-L-Pro) in bread crumb and crust, it was found that temperature is the main causative agent of 2,5-diketopiperazine formation during the baking process. Bread crumb and crust contained almost 100 and 2000 times respectively the levels found in dough prior to baking. cis-Cyclo(L-Leu-L-Pro) and cis-cyclo(L-Phe-L-Pro) were also found to be at sensorally active levels in bread crust, however both 2,5-diketopiperazines were found to be below the minimum inhibitory concentration for antifungal activity in bread.
2. Isolation, structure determination, synthesis, and sensory activity of N-phenylpropenoyl-L-amino acids from cocoa (Theobroma cacao)
Timo Stark, Thomas Hofmann J Agric Food Chem. 2005 Jun 29;53(13):5419-28. doi: 10.1021/jf050458q.
Application of chromatographic separation and taste dilution analyses recently revealed besides procyanidins a series of N-phenylpropenoyl amino acids as the key contributors to the astringent taste of nonfermented cocoa beans as well as roasted cocoa nibs. Because these amides have as yet not been reported as key taste compounds, this paper presents the isolation, structure determination, and sensory activity of these amino acid amides. Besides the previously reported (-)-N-[3',4'-dihydroxy-(E)-cinnamoyl]-3-hydroxy-L-tyrosine (clovamide), (-)-N-[4'-hydroxy-(E)-cinnamoyl]-L-tyrosine (deoxyclovamide), and (-)-N-[3',4'-dihydroxy-(E)-cinnamoyl]-L-tyrosine, seven additional amides, namely, (+)-N-[3',4'-dihydroxy-(E)-cinnamoyl]-L-aspartic acid, (+)-N-[4'-hydroxy-(E)-cinnamoyl]-L-aspartic acid, (-)-N-[3',4'-dihydroxy-(E)-cinnamoyl]-L-glutamic acid, (-)-N-[4'-hydroxy-(E)-cinnamoyl]-L-glutamic acid, (-)-N-[4'-hydroxy-(E)-cinnamoyl]-3-hydroxy-L-tyrosine, (+)-N-[4'-hydroxy-3'-methoxy-(E)-cinnamoyl]-L-aspartic acid, and (+)-N-[(E)-cinnamoyl]-L-aspartic acid, were identified for the first time in cocoa products by means of LC-MS/MS, 1D/2D-NMR, UV-vis, CD spectroscopy, and polarimetry, as well as independent enantiopure synthesis. Using the recently developed half-tongue test, human recognition thresholds for the astringent and mouth-drying oral sensation were determined to be between 26 and 220 micromol/L (water) depending on the amino acid moiety. In addition, exposure to light rapidly converted these [E]-configured N-phenylpropenoyl amino acids into the corresponding [Z]-isomers, thus indicating that analysis of these compounds in food and plant materials needs to be performed very carefully in the absence of light to prevent artifact formation.
3. Molecular definition of the taste of roasted cocoa nibs (Theobroma cacao) by means of quantitative studies and sensory experiments
Timo Stark, Sabine Bareuther, Thomas Hofmann J Agric Food Chem. 2006 Jul 26;54(15):5530-9. doi: 10.1021/jf0608726.
Sensory-guided decomposition of roasted cocoa nibs revealed that, besides theobromine and caffeine, a series of bitter-tasting 2,5-diketopiperazines and flavan-3-ols were the key inducers of the bitter taste as well as the astringent mouthfeel imparted upon consumption of roasted cocoa. In addition, a number of polyphenol glycopyranosides as well as a series of N-phenylpropenoyl-l-amino acids have been identified as key astringent compounds of roasted cocoa. In the present investigation, a total of 84 putative taste compounds were quantified in roasted cocoa beans and then rated for the taste contribution on the basis of dose-over-threshold (DoT) factors to bridge the gap between pure structural chemistry and human taste perception. To verify these quantitative results, an aqueous taste reconstitute was prepared by blending aqueous solutions of the individual taste compounds in their "natural" concentrations. Sensory analyses revealed that the taste profile of this artificial cocktail was very close to the taste profile of an aqueous suspension of roasted cocoa nibs. To further narrow down the number of key taste compounds, finally, taste omission experiments and human dose/response functions were performed, demonstrating that the bitter-tasting alkaloids theobromine and caffeine, seven bitter-tasting diketopiperazines, seven bitter- and astringent-tasting flavan-3-ols, six puckering astringent N-phenylpropenoyl-l-amino acids, four velvety astringent flavonol glycosides, gamma-aminobutyric acid, beta-aminoisobutyric acid, and six organic acids are the key organoleptics of the roasted cocoa nibs.
