OdM1

Background: Pregnancies complicated by maternal diabetes are associated with disproportionate intrauterine growth that subsequently may lead to pediatric adiposity. Objectives: We investigated whether disproportionate intrauterine growth leads to differences in BMI in 4- to 5-year-old offspring from pregnancies complicated by type 1 (ODM1), type 2 (ODM2), or gestational diabetes (OGDM). Methods: Ultrasound data of fetal head-to-abdominal circumference (HC/AC) ratio obtained between 32 and 36 weeks of gestational age were related to offspring anthropometrics that were retrieved from infant welfare centers. Results: Data from 27 ODM1, 22 ODM2, and 24 OGDM were obtained. Ultrasound measurements for the HC/AC ratio were performed at a mean of 33-34 weeks, with a mean Z-score of the HC/AC ratio of -0.801, -0.879, and 0.017 in ODM1, ODM2, and OGDM. Mean BMI SDS was highest in ODM2 as compared to ODM1 and OGDM. In ODM1 there was a negative correlation between HC/AC ratio and BMI SDS at the ages of 4 and 5 years, but not in ODM2 or OGDM. The birth weight Z-score was positively correlated to BMI SDS in ODM2 and OGDM. Conclusion: Disproportionate intrauterine growth, expressed as the HC/AC ratio, was inversely related with BMI SDS in ODM1 at the ages of 4-5 years, but not in ODM2 or OGDM. Weight and maybe obesity in ODM1 offspring are likely to be related to intrauterine adiposity, whereas overweight in ODM2 and OGDM offspring seems more related to other factors such as birth weight centile, maternal obesity, and altered lifestyle factors during childhood.

Background: Infants of women with pregestational diabetes are at risk for developing obesity in later life. This study aimed to identify subgroups at highest risk, by studying growth profiles of offspring from women with type 1 or 2 diabetes mellitus (ODM1, ODM2) until the age of 14 y. Methods: Information from infant welfare centers was received for 78 ODM1 and 44 ODM2. Mean BMI SD scores (SDS) (based on 1980 nation-wide references) and height SDS (based on 2009 references) were calculated and included in a random-effects model. Values were compared to the 2009 Dutch growth study. Results: BMI SDS profiles differed between ODM1 and ODM2, with the highest mean BMI SDS profiles in ODM2. Other factors that affected growth profiles in these infants included the presence of maternal obesity, large for gestational age (LGA) at birth and in ODM2 a Dutch-Mediterranean origin. Conclusion: Offspring of women with diabetes have higher BMI SDS profiles than observed in the 2009 Dutch growth study, with the highest BMI SDS in ODM2 who are LGA at birth and have obese mothers. Preventive strategies for offspring adiposity may include pursuing lower prepregnancy maternal BMI, prevention of LGA at birth, and prevention of increased weight gain during childhood.

Aims/hypothesis: Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is reported to be associated with childhood obesity, however the magnitude of this association and relation to intrauterine growth is uncertain. We, therefore, aimed to assess whether the growth trajectories of large for gestational age (LGA) and non-LGA offspring of mothers with GDM (OGDM) are different until early adolescence. We also aimed to explore whether growth trajectories of OGDM differ from those of offspring of mothers with type 1 or 2 diabetes (ODM1, ODM2). Methods: We studied height and BMI standard deviation score (SDS) of the OGDM group, up to the age of 14 years, with subgroup analysis comparing LGA with non-LGA at birth as a reflection of the intrauterine environment. All mothers with GDM who delivered at the University Medical Center Utrecht between 1990 and 2006 were contacted to participate; informed consent was received for 104 OGDM of 93 mothers. Offspring data were collected through Dutch infant welfare centres. Recorded height and weight were converted to BMI and age- and sex-specific SDS values for Dutch children. Additionally, we compared the OGDM group with ODM1 and ODM2 groups in order to identify those offspring with the highest risk of becoming overweight. Growth trajectories were compared between non-LGA and LGA OGDM and between OGDM, ODM1 and ODM2, using a random-effects model. In the longitudinal follow-up a mean of 7.4 ± 2 measurements per infant were available. Results: Mothers had a prepregnancy BMI of 25.8 kg/m2 and 24% of their infants were LGA at birth. Heights of OGDM were no different from those of the Dutch Growth Study. Non-LGA OGDM showed a BMI SDS comparable with that of the reference population, with a slight increase in early adolescence. LGA OGDM had a higher BMI SDS trajectory than non-LGA OGDM and the reference population, which plateaued at around 10 years of age. Comparison of growth trajectories of OGDM, ODM1 and ODM2 showed ODM2 to have the highest trajectory followed by ODM1 and OGDM, with the LGA counterparts of all three offspring groups in the highest BMI SDS ranges. Conclusions/interpretation: Until early adolescence, OGDM have a BMI that is 0.5 SDS higher than that of the Dutch background population. LGA OGDM appear to be at particularly higher risk of being overweight in adolescence compared with non-LGA OGDM, putting them also at a higher lifetime risk of being overweight and developing obesity. ODM2 showed the highest BMI SDS values and had an average BMI SDS of +1.6 until the age of 14, when it became +2 SD. These results emphasize the importance of adequate recognition and timely treatment of maternal gestational diabetes to prevent fetal macrosomia in obstetrics.